B. K. Rana
Linguistic Society of Nepal
email: bk_rana@hotmail.com
( Presented to the Fourth Round Table International Conference on Ethnogenesis of South and Central Asia, Harvard University, Cambridge MA, USA. May 11 – 13, 2002 )
General Background
The Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is extremely rich and complex in cultural as well as linguistic diversity. The diversity as such is mainly because there live diverse ethnic groups of peoples since thousands of years, each of which has its own distinct language and culture. Kusunda is one of the ethnic groups of peoples whose language and culture are believed precious to the students of ethnology.
Kusundas are also known as one of the indigenous peoples of Nepal. They feel embarrassed having an introduction as the Kusundas. Therefore, they seem to have shifted to other languages and cultures apparently leaving an impression of their extinction. Their tribal name is myahq – ‘king of forests’. Before presenting anything about the Kusundas, I must extend my profound gratitude to Dr. Michael Witzel, Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard, without whose constant guidance and encouragement for almost two years through electronic mediums, my presence to this prestigious conference would have been impossible. Meanwhile, I should also sincerely thank Professor Harold Fleming and Paul Whitehouse whose inspiring letters prompted me to continue my research on the Kusundas. Paul Whitehouse’s article in Mother Tongue (1997) was also something new and important to me. And, his comments on my article in Janajati (2001) also inspired me to further work on the Kusundas.
I must also quote here then British Resident Representative to Nepal, Brian H. Hodgson’s lines on Kusundas as “they were generally supposed to be autochthones, or primitive inhabitants of the country, were near to what is usually called the state of nature as anything in human shape can well be, deemed very precious by all the real students of ethnology. Their origin, condition and character are, in truth, ethnic facts of high value, as proving how tribes may be dislocated and deteriorated during the great transitional eras of society” (Hodgson 1857). This information is brief and sketchy but it has always induced me to go into Kusunda studies. Kusunda research is not yet completely accomplished. It will take sometime more and therefore, we are optimistic that our Kusunda informants will live long so that we will become able to reasonably finish with our studies on them. It is our sincere hope that the concerned authorities will also do something meaningful from their part to preserve Kusundas in the Himalayas.
Kusunda has also been cited as a dead language. My research data on Kusunda do not support this claim. It is a fact that Kusunda has quite a few speakers, who have shifted to other language groups, causing language attrition owing to marriage, migration and other soci-economic changes the societies have undergone. Under these circumstances, it may well be surmised that Kusunda is on the verge of extinction and may die out with the death of its remaining living speakers. It is, therefore, high time to document and analyze this language before it is lost into oblivion.
Kusunda Ethnicity and Population
Kusundas are also called Banarajas – Kings of the forests, because they used to live in the forests, called themselves *myahak[1] had a kind of taxation system over Rautes[2]. Kusundas were Kings and Rautes were their subjects. Generally Rautes run away if they happen to see a Kusunda from a distance. This can be noticed even today along the Raute track in the Surkhet district of Midwest Nepal. Kusundas had a foraging society. But, the case is different now; there is no left Kusunda who gathers and hunts in the wild. I have found 7 Kusundas, in the central and mid-western hills of Nepal, whom I believe ethnically pure by origin and two of them are younger females married to Chhetris, another ethnic group in the country. There are few other Kusundas of mixed origin; including them the Kusunda population in Nepal will not exceed fifty in total[3].
I believe, both ‘Banaraja’ and ‘Kusunda’ are names given to the ‘myahq peoples’ (Kusundas) by other communities. Kusundas are also said to be the offspring of ‘Kusha’ – Rama’s second son born from ‘kusha grass’ in Valmiki’s Cottage. This story is well depicted in The Ramayana. Chepangs[4] also believe they are the offspring of Sita’s first son Lohari or Lava who is also very famous in the Ramayana. Lohari and Kushari were two sons of Sita. The Kusundas believe that they are offspring of Kushari – Kusha. Later Lohari and Kushari became rivals. Then the Kusundas and Chepangs began to live separately. Some of the Chepang cognates have some similarity with that of Kusunda’s. Both Kusunda and Chepangs are found in the hills of Nepal.
Kusunda Language
Kusunda culture is nonexistent now. But, there is their language which, I believe, originated in the Sino-Tibetan area; or it could be an earlier language in this area. However, a number of eminent linguists have written to me explaining that some of the present Kusunda cognates might be Tibeto-Burman borrowings. If it is to be believed, then Kusunda will be a ‘barren’ language without its own cognates for objects such as: *ing (sun), *ngsa (fish), *uyu (blood), *gepan (language), *un (trail), *langhai (village), *suta (thread), *mucha (banana), *kakchi (crab), *tu (snake), etc. So, it is a matter of thorough research. Robert Shafer (1954) was the first scholar to notice Kusunda as a language isolate. Professor H. Fleming as well as most other linguists also believe that this is a language isolate. Yet, it may also be argued that Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman as well as other languages also shared with Kusunda. It is a matter of serious study as to what is the genesis of Kusunda language in the Himalayas. The Kusunda people, their language and culture are very important to both linguists and anthropologists alike. Recently the Kusundas have undergone a drastic change in their life style, as the result of which they have completely forgotten their own ulture and tradition. Still, fortunately there is the language ‘living’ at the moment. This language has not yet been well studied for we have obtained only limited data so far.
Additionally, the SIL Ethnologue’s mentioning of the death of the Kusunda language has also dispirited linguists to find other Kusunda speakers and study the language. Under the auspices of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, I could go for some research and find a few Kusundas who can speak the language fluently. A month ago, I have been informed again that there is yet another male Kusunda who can also speak the language. I hope to see him soon. Therefore, there are still ample opportunities for everyone of us to study the language and understand its importance.
Hodgson – Grierson Data
When talking of the Kusundas we happen to remember Hodgson. Having lived in Nepal for a long time in the early nineteenth century, Hodgson had been very fortunate to go into studies on languages, literatures and religions of Nepal and Tibet. He was much fascinated by ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity of the Himalayan region. His works on these areas are always great. But, as concern Kusundas he could not personally meet with them and has so admitted “During a long residence in Nepal, I never could gain the least access to the Kusundas, though aided by all the authority of the Durbar.” (Hodgson 1957).In those days, Nepal was experiencing certain political changes – the Rana Regime was recently installed and lasted for 104 years; under them, there were no educational and other sorts of developments. It is therefore understandable that Hodgson’s assistants were people from other communities. It is also possible that those assistants were not even from the speakers’ neighbouring community and had very little knowledge of Kusunda as well as of Tibeto-Burman languages in Nepal. Needless to say therefore, some of the Kusunda data obtained that way now require verification.
Grierson drew on Hodgson’s vocabulary for the Linguistic Survey of India in 1909. Later scholars also have drawn from the latter’s work. These data have to be independently verified again. Below is a comparative listing of Hodgson data, drawn from the Linguistic Survey of India:
| English | New Data | Hodgson data |
| One | kasti | Goisang |
| Two | dukhu | Ghinga |
| Three | dahat | Daha |
| Four | pigo | Pinjang |
| Five | ? | Pangang-jang |
| House | wohi | Bahi |
| Hand | nabi/amokh | Gipa |
| Child | ghichi | gitase/chyachi |
| tooth | ouhu | toho |
| eye | ining | chining |
| good | uhin | waiyaki |
| trail | ung | won |
| he | git/gina | gida |
Reinhard-Toba Data:
John Reinhard and Sueyoshi Toba also worked on Kusunda some 32 years ago. Their data are the primary data recorded by Reinhard from the field, which were later analyzed by Toba in Kathmandu. But, the latter had not been able to see and speak with the Kusundas in person. Both of them were non-native researchers. I have found a number redundant data in Reinhard-Toba lists, nevertheless, it is a scientifically accomplished work. Reinhard has honestly admitted “this (Kusunda analysis) unfortunately was based on very little data, is incomplete and contains several errors; significant variants obtained from different informants have been listed. Several of these terms could not be checked and therefore the list should not be considered definitive” Reinhard (1976). Therefore, there are also some inevitable redundancies.
Similarities with Other Languages
Having found some sorts of similarities with a few indigenous languages of the Tibeto-Burman family, I therefore believe that Kusunda originated in the Sino-Tibetan area. Kusunda *mahi (water buffalo) and *mai (mother) are similar to Central Magar mahi and mai, withthe same meanings; cf. also Sanskrit mahisha. Kusunda mai is quite close to Sanskrit *maataa meaning ‘mother’. Some other Tibeto-Burman linguistic communities also have ‘mai’ for mother. In the same manner Kusunda and Magar say suta for ‘thread’ and its Prakrit is sutta and in Sanskrit it is suutra.
I have already mentioned above that some linguists differ with my view on the origin of Kusunda. They believe that Kusunda is a language isolate – not sharing recent common origin with any languages. But my recent findings confirm that Kusunda has noticeable affinities with a number of indigenous languages spoken across northern belt of Nepal. Therefore, it is possible that this language originated in the Sino-Tibetan area and other major language families also shared with it. Below are some sample cognates.
1. one
KUSUNDA: kasti; TIBETO-BURMAN: kat (Central Magar)
2. blood
KUSUNDA: uyu ; TIBETO-BURMAN : chyuhui (Baram), uyu (Chepang), hayu (Dura)
3. trail
KUSUNDA: ung; TIBETO-BURMAN: ungma (Baram)
4. fish
KUSUNDA: ngsa ;TIBETO-BURMAN:ngyasya (Western Magar), ngya (Chepang), dishya(Central Magar), dishya(Dura)
5. fire
KUSUNDA: za ; TIBETO-BURMAN: chhawo > warm/hot (Tibetan)
6. language
KUSUNDA: gepan ; TIBETO-BURMAN: ge+pang (Western Magar > ge = we/our, pang = language), ke-gepa (Tibetan: meaning ‘you cry aloud’).
7. banana
KUSUNDA: mucha ; TIBETO-BURMAN: mocha (Central Magar); moje, (Tamang), muja (Dura), mach (Gurung); also in Dravidian (Tulu mote etc.)
8. water buffalo
KUSUNDA: mahi; TIBETO-BURMAN: mahi (Central Magar), mai/maikha (Dura), mai (Gurung); cf. Skt. mahisha
9. village
KUSUNDA: langhai; TIBETO-BURMAN: langha (Central Magar)
10. sun
KUSUNDA: in/ing, TIBETO-BURMAN: nin/nim (Nymba), nima (Tibetan), nyam (Chepang)
11. bread
KUSUNDA: mangmi; TIBETO-BURMAN: mangmi (Bhote)
12. mother
KUSUNDA: mai; TIBETO-BURMAN: mai (Central Magar/Western Magar), INDO-EUROPEAN: maataa (Sanskrit)
13. forest
KUSUNDA: gelang : SINO-TIBETAN: bling
14. thread
KUSUNDA : suta: SINO-TIBETAN : suta (Central Magar) ; INDO-EUROPEAN : sutta ( Pali/Prakrit); suutra (Sanskrit)
15. crab
KUSUNDA: kakchi SINO-TIBETAN: khakre (Tamang)
16. snake
KUSUNDA: tu; SINO-TIBETAN: du (Bhote); pu (Kulung Rai)
17. egg
KUSUNDA: gwa; SINO-TIBETAN: wa-kun (Chepang); wadi (Kulung Rai)
18. monkey
KUSUNDA: guinyau (CN), haku (MWN);SINO-TIBETAN : laku (Dura)
19. nose
KUSUNDA: inau SINO-TIBETAN: nu (Dura)
20. Leg
KUSUNDA: yen/yeng SINO-TIBETAN: lung (Kulung Rai)
21. Louse
KUUNDA: kee SINO-TIBETAN: see (Kulung Rai)
22. goat
KUSUNDA: miza (CN), azaki (MWN), INDO-EUROPEAN: aja (Sanskrit)
The list above shows that Kusunda has some kind of relationship with other languages across Nepal. Therefore, this sort of relationship should not be taken as borrowings only. It is also a matter of deep study as to who borrowed from whom? Below I give some further explanation of the language:
(a) There is prominence of nasal ‘h’ sound in Kusunda language and one of the striking characteristics of Tibeto-Burman languages is that they have nasal ‘h’ prominently occurring in all distributions; for example, ngsa ‘fish’, ngyangdi ‘woman’, dimtang ‘beer’, langhai ‘village’, ung ‘trail’, gelang ‘forest’, ing ‘sun’, mangmi ‘bread’, sijang ‘beer’, etc. The Santhal language beloging to the Austro-Asiatic Munda family has ‘yeh‘ prominently occurring in its major word classes.
(b) For ‘fish’ the Kusundas say ngsa’ [h+sa], the Magars of the Karnali area say *ngya+sya, the Chepangs ngya or nga, the Barams nanga and the Magars of the Gandaki area [di+sya]. These segments [h+sa], [nga+sya] and [di+sya] have the same meaning and the formation of these words are also distinctly similar. The Kusunda [h+sa] has *n of nur or ngr for water and *sa for meat. Fish is ‘meat from water’. Therefore *ngsa is a Tibeto-Burman word.
(c) Concerning numerals in Kusunda there is ‘kasti’ for ‘1’ and ‘pigo’ for ‘4’. In the Magar language of Central Nepal these are ‘kat’ and ‘buli’ respectively. In the Baram language 4 is called ‘bi’. The Kusunda ‘pigo’, Baram ‘bi’ and Magar ‘buli’ have bilabial similarities. In Kusunda, counting does not exceed five: kasti for 1, dukhu for 2, dahat for 3, pigo for 4 and pangang-jang for 5. The case is very similar to the Magar language: Magars have ‘kat’ for 1, ‘nish’ for 2, ‘song’ for 3, ‘buli’ for 4, ‘ bang’ for 5.
Complex Pronominalization
Kusunda is a complex language. The problem lies in its pronominalization. The Hodgson-Grierson and Reinhard-Toba data, which most later day linguists have utilized have to be reanalyzed. Comparatively, the Reinhard-Toba data seem to have been obtained more scientifically than Hodgson- Grierson’s. But the former’s data have also been found to contain some flaws. My informants have given me comparatively different data. Therefore, we should also check other sources, along with these two, before we draw any conclusion. I understand that the Kusundas have a habit of answering someone’s question just in one word or two, which is a most common feature in other languages of the Tibeto-Burman family. We do not find formal expressions in Tibeto-Burman languages. They are just spoken in one or two words. The same can be traced out in the Kusunda language also. For example :
| English | Kusunda | |
| (I) | eat | taman |
| (I) | give | itanan |
| (It) | bites | kamaji |
My stomach = chii chimat
Your stomach = nii nimat
His stomach = gidi gimat
I have been able to record some Kusunda sample sentences few months ago. These sentences are collected from two female Kusunda speakers of the Rolpa and Dang districts, in mid-west Nepal. One of the speakers’ daughter, who is married to a Chettri, also can speak the language. While at home, mother and daughter converse in Kusunda language. I found Kusundas have a habit of speaking only one word or short phrases when speaking to others.
| English | Kusunda | |
| I eat rice | chi kadi gaman / kadi tamdi | |
| I go home | chi woha / wohi tagai | |
| I come home | chi waha / wohi tugun | |
| He eats rice | git kadi gaman | |
| You eat rice | nu kaji naman | |
| (You) come here | taba aaga | |
| (I) drink water | tang chongdi | |
| I go along this way | taun chahan | |
| I live at home | wohi sahan | |
| I live in(side) the home | aawa sahan | |
| It rained | tang ugun (tãun) | |
| It rained yesterday | pene tang ugun | |
| The sun rose | ing ugi | |
| A hard sun ! | ing haap ! | |
Comparative Study of Kusunda with the Magar Language of the Karnali Area[5]
Both the Kusunda and the Magar languages of the Karnali area have distinct similarities; however, we can find a number of Kusunda cognates that are similar to other Tibeto-Burman languages like Shauka, Baram, Chepang, Tamang, Thaksya, Bhote, Bhujel etc. The Magars of the Karnali area call the languages of others’, including Nepali, the state language of Nepal, ‘rangpang’ and call their own language ‘gepang’. Kusundas also call their own language ‘gepang’. Both ‘gepangs’ have striking syntactic similarities:
| Kusunda Gepan | Western Magar Gepang |
| chi kadi gaman(I rice eat) | nga yai/kang jyonga(I rice eat) |
| git kadi gaman(He rice eats) | wola yai/kang jyowa(He rice eats) |
| nu kadi naman(You rice eat) | nanga yai/kang jyona(You rice eat) |
In the Kusunda sentences given above there are pronominalized verbal prefixes, and in Western Magar sentences we can see pronominalized verbal suffixes. Have prefixes and suffixes different functions in the process of word formation? Below I give a few more pronominalized sentences and phrases from the Magar language of the Karnali area in Kusunda structure:
| Western Magar Gepang | English |
| nga ri ngawoje | I water drink. |
| nang ri nawoje | You water drink |
| ge ri gewoje | We water drink |
| nga ngalijjya | I (here) am |
| nang nalijjya | You (there) are |
| ge gelijjya | We (here) are |
| nga ngado | I (it) do |
| nang nado | You (it) do |
| Ge gedo | We (it) do. |
The above examples indicate that Kusunda is not a language isolate. It is quite similar to the Kham Magar language of the Karnali area, which shows that Kusunda has some sort of affinity with Tibeto-Burman. Unfortunately, Hodgson-Grierson and Reinhard-Toba do not seem to have made any effort to compare Kusunda with other Tibeto-Burman languages found in Nepal. Had they been able to study the Western Magar language, they would have categorized Kusunda as having originated in the Sino-Tibetan area.
Comparison with Kulung Rai Language
The eastern part of Nepal is primarily inhabited by the Rai and Limbu ethnic groups. These peoples speak their own languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. Kulung Rai is also a pronominalized language. Below I give a few words and sentences of Kulung Rai language:
Kulung Rai Words
| I = kong | he = nako | we = keika |
| kaska = we two | snake = pu | waas = play |
| sun = namchhoba | stone = lung | egg = wadi |
| leg = lung | water = kaw | tree = seechho |
Kulung Rai Counting
| one = ibum | two = nichi |
| three = supchi | four = lichi |
| five = ngachi | a person = ilpo |
| two persons = nipppo | three persons = suppo |
| four persons = lippo | five persons = ngapo |
Kulung Rai Sentences
| I eat rice = konga ja choyo | He eats rice = nskosa ja choyo |
| We eat rice = keika ja chyaeka | We (two) eat rice = kaska nippo ja chaichuka |
| We (two) play = kaska was laichika | We (many) paly = Keika lai laiyaka |
Additionally, some linguists have attempted to categorize Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in the Himalayan belt as the Tibeto-Himalayan sub-branch of Sino-Tibetan, which consists of pronominalized Himalayan languages belonging to the Other Mongoloid and non-pronominalized Himalayan Languages belonging to the Kirats (Risely et al. 1931/1975). If we follow them the Kusunda falls in Other Mongoloid pronominalized language group. But, this interpretation has not been acclaimed by all. The Santhal language belongs to the Austro-Asiatic Munda family. It also has pronomilization but this is different from that of the Kusunda language. The following phrases and sentences can be taken as an example (Please refer to Annex 2 also).
| Santhal | English |
| uni dakay jama | He eats rice |
| aam dakang jama | You eat rice |
| aale dakale jama | We eat rice |
| ing daing nyuya | I drink water |
| ale menak liya | We are |
General Conclusion
One of the most powerful functions of a language is that of a repository of the culture and worldview of its speakers. Its grammar and lexicon store the shared experiences of past generations, and a language is the channel by which these images, emotions, knowledge and beliefs are transmitted to the next. A language does not just transmit messages; it decorates them aesthetically, and so facilitates their reception and retention. In the preceding paragraphs I have explained how important the Kusunda language is for serious studies. Kusunda appears to have external relationships with a number of indigenous peoples’ languages spoken across the world – from Alaska of North America to South and Central Africa, Europe, Asia and New Zealand. (See Annex 3).
I believe Kusunda, as one of the ancient languages, could also be a reliable tool for understanding the prehistory of early peoples in South Asia. It is therefore very high time that the Kusundas should be preserved in an equitable manner. The Kusundas should not be deprived of their human rights. Following what has already been said in the declaration of the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly resolution 47/135 of 18 December 1992, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal has been very keen to implement an integrated community development programme for the indigenous peoples, including the Kusundas, who are living in different parts of the country.
Since, the Kusundas are in a state of impoverishment, they urgently require genuine support from among governmental as well as non-governmental organizations that are working for the all-round development of the peoples of Nepal. By bringing the Kusundas together in one place and encouraging them to communicate among themselves in their own language, Kusunda language can be stabilized. There are some other Kusundas, of mixed origin, who also wish to learn this language and seek our support. Additionally, in order to preserve other Himalayan languages, we should undertake a further Linguistic Survey of Nepal, employing professionals especially from among those of the speakers’ own communities, so that we might be able to fully understand the Kusunda and other languages in the Himalayas.
*******
Annex: 1
Kusunda Vocabulary[6] :
| Old record | New record | English Equivalent |
| nabi | amokh (MWN) | Hand |
| aicha | archa (MWN) | Needle |
| – | bai (MWN) | Sister |
| ngyangdi | nangdighichi (MWN) | Woman |
| dhukchi | duighihi | Son |
| makche | makche | young man |
| oichindi | usindi (MWN) | young woman |
| – | dhaiya (MWN) | Old man |
| ghichi | gheche (MWN) | Child |
| wou | Wou | Stone |
| guinayu (CN) | haku (MWN) | Monkey |
| bokh | garhu (MWN) | Warm |
| – | puhut (MWN) | Hot |
| – | yakkau (MWN) | Cool |
| khangu | khangu (MWN) | Cold |
| nikhumba | nongba (MWN) | Ox/cow |
| – | abo | Vegetables |
| – | abu | Yam |
| nyu | nyu | Man/person |
| manenu | manenu (MWN) | Many people |
| – | kugjangnu (MWN) | Few people |
| ohin | ohin | Nice |
| dintakanyia | tang | Wine |
| – | dimtang(CN/MWN)/sijang (MWN) | Beer |
| miza | ajaki (MWN) | Goat |
| – | ipan | Maize |
| – | sising (MWN) | Paddy |
| – | kadida (CN) | Rice |
| kaadi | kaadi | Rice (cooked) |
| – | paiti (CN) | Pulses |
| – | suta (CN/MWN) | Thread |
| – | abokh (CN) | Yam |
| Gihan | myau | Female sex organ |
| Gibhu | konji | Male sex organ |
| Gwa | gwa | Egg |
| Gipan | gipan | Language |
| Itak | itak | Root |
| – | gigzi (CN)/dazzi (MWN) | Firewood |
| – | pungar (CN) | Haystack |
| jing | jing | Mustard oil |
| za | za | Fire |
| jai | jai | Ashes |
| tut | tut | Bow |
| ii | ii | Tree |
| – | mui | Arrow head |
| un | un | Trail |
| sara | sara | Long |
| gali | gali | Sand |
| lahang | langhai | Village |
| – | gelang | Forest |
| whoi | waha | House |
| aayi | pai (CN) | Bamboo |
| gipan | gipan | Flower |
| gitak | gitak | Seed |
| kai | kai | Wind |
| – | hyo | Mango seed |
| – | phuchi | Stool |
| – | syangwa | Large tree |
| – | huki | Salt |
| – | amba (MWN) | Meat |
| tang | tang | Water |
| tapghichi | tapghichi | Chicken |
| – | tapgimi | Cock |
| itak | itak | Root |
| mangmi | mangmi | Bread |
| – | bukta | Clothes |
Words for family relations:
Old Data New Data English Equivalent
| mai | mai | Mother |
| yehi | yehi | Father |
| – | bai (MWN) | Sister |
| – | bhaya (MWN) | Younger brother |
| – | nyakham (MWN) | Maternal uncle |
| – | nangbi (MWN) | Maternal aunt |
| – | yangzar(MWN) | Great uncle |
| – | mizarni (MWN) | Great aunt |
| – | yamala(MWN) | Middle uncle |
| – | yamali(MWN) | Middle aunt |
| – | yaisala(MWN) | Younger uncle |
| – | maisali(MWN) | Younger aunt |
| – | yakanchha(MWN) | Youngest uncle |
| – | makanchhi (MWN) | Youngest aunt |
Parts of the Body
| ipi = head | ipi = hair (CN) | gee = hair (MWN) |
| inang = eye | inau = nose | aata = mouth |
| nabi = arm | amokh = hand | hanki = neck |
| yan/yang = foot | okchi = chest | ambu = breast |
| idu = liver | gepo = flesh | gu = bone |
| konji = male sex organ | myau = vagina(CN) | uyu = blood |
| imat = stomach |
Pronouns
| chi = I | nu = you | git/gina = he, |
| chiyi = my (HG) | niyi = thy (H&G) | gida = he, she, it (HG) |
Verbs:
| go = tagai | went = dagai | come = aaga |
| eat = taman | give = itanan | bite = kamaji |
| aganan = (he) makes | chaanaan = (I) go | eat = gaman |
| Nyawan = to collect (RT) |
Name of mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, etc.
| mayhaq = tiger | kauli = tiger |
| aagai = dog | mahi = water buffalo |
| guinyau = monkey (CN) | haku = monkey (MWN) |
| samtak = squirrel | nikhumba = ox/cow (CN) |
| nongba = ox/cow (MWN) | amba = an animal living in trees |
| Yangut = mongoose (CN) | tap = jungle fowl |
| miaa = lion? (R & T ) | tu = snake |
| kee = louse | pui = a kind of amphibian |
*NB: CN > Central Nepal, MWN > Midwest Nepal, HG > Hodgson and Grierson, RT > Reinhard and Toba
Annex: 2
Santhal words and sentences
Santhal is a Munda language belonging to the Austro-Asiatic language; it is spoken by the Santhals living in the eastern lowlands (Terai) of Nepal. They have even developed a script of their own. This is also a pronominalized language. Below I give some Santhal words and sentences from my recent survey:
| sengel = fire | da = water | hawai = air |
| buru = mountain | tandi = plain | bir = forest |
| sahan = firewood | tasat = grass | gada = river |
| daka = rice (cooked) | hudu = paddy | dul = pour |
| ha:d = man | manmi = man | aihad = woman |
| babahad = father | dahar = trail | du (la) = pulses |
| dal = beat | nydachado = moon | seingchando = sun |
| eipil = star | rimil = cloud | dhiri = stone |
| sherma = sky | seta = dog | hadam = oldman |
| sagad = bull cart | rabang = cold | reyang = cool |
| lal = hot | hamal = heavy | hasa = soil |
| haku = fish | shaska= happy | odab= house |
| parkam= siesta bed | sadag = ditch | khandriya= deep |
| sadag= stream | sakam = leaf | dar = branch of tree |
| rehed = root | jandra = maize | aadag = green vegetable |
| ub = hair | chadi= forehead | medh= eye |
| mu = nose | lutur = ear | tanka = back of the neck |
| hadg = neck | kadam = chest | ti = hand |
| katub = finger | rama = nail | diya = backbone ? |
| lag = stomach | buka = navel | danda= waist |
Pronouns
| iyng = I | aam = you/thou | aale = we |
| uni = he/she/it | eygnya = my | uniya = his/her |
| aaleya = our | aama = your | unkuwa = their |
| unku = they | unkin = your (two) |
Days of the week
| singemaha = Sunday | atemaha = Monday | balemaha = Tuesday |
| sagunmaha= Wednesday | sardimaha= Thursday | jarunmaha = Friday |
| nyuhumaha = Saturday | yamha = week | maha = day |
| seta = morning | tikin = noon | singad = afternoon |
| ayub = evening | ngida = night | talangida = mid night |
| sim rag = dwan | nyuhum = dusk | basiym=breakfast time |
Directions
| samang = east | pachhe = west | konye = north | yetm = south |
| sehet = towards (direction) | note = towards (here) | hante = towards (there) | latar = downwards |
| chitan=upwards | chitan = above | latar = below |
Some Sentences
| Santhal | English |
| darire chedyn ab aakana | There is a bird on the tree. |
| unku okare menak kuwa ? | Where are they? |
| chet uni dakai jama ? | Did he eat rice ? |
| uni jajam kanai ? | He is eating |
| aaleku menak leya | We are ( many) |
| aaliya menakliya | We are two |
| ing dakayn jama | I eat rice |
*****
Annex: 3
The External Relationships of Kusunda with other Languages[7]
1. ‘man’
KUSUNDA : hu/hiyu ‘man’ — Ainu – ainu, niyu (person) INDO-PACIFIC : [Timor-Alar] Makasai anu, Bunak en ‘man’; NA-DENE : Tlingit na ‘tribe’ ‘people’, SUMERIAN : na ‘person’ ni-ta, ni-tah ‘man’ INDO-EUROPEAN : *ner ‘man, male’, ALTAIC* nairL ‘man person’, KADU : Miri huri, NIGER-CONGO : Mande nu, Kpelle nu ‘man’, Bambara nyi, Nalu nyie, Mossi ni, Kasele onyi, Adele (e) ni, Yoruba ni, Likpe ni etc.
2. ‘belly’
KUSUNDA : imat, tamat ‘belly’; AMERIND *mat; TASMAN [W,SE] lomati (na); NA-DENE; Athabaskan *w¶t ‘belly’; Eyak w¶t ‘vomit’, BURUSHASKI- wat ‘body, self
3. ‘egg’
KUSUNDA : goa, gwa ‘egg’; ANDAMAN: Onge gwagane ‘turtle egg’; SINO-TIBETAN : *Qo(w)H ‘egg’ Tibetan s-go-na ‘egg(s)’; NA-DENE: Haidaqaw ‘bird egg’
4. ‘water’
KUSUNDA : tah ‘water’ : NA-DENE : Haida tah ‘sea water’, Eyak tah ‘waves’, Galice ta- water (in compounds); Chipewyan ta- Narajo ta’- ‘water’
5. ‘fire’
KUSUNDA : dza, za ‘fire’, Sino-Tibetan tsha ‘hot’, SUMERIAN : i-zi ‘fire, ALTAIC *asa to ignite, Gilyak t’a, KHOISAN Hiechware joaa, INDO-PACIFIC Moni usa ‘fire’ DENE-CAUCASIC : Basque su, Caucasic ts’ayi ‘fire’, NILO-SAHARAN, Lendu kazz ‘fire’ NIGER CONGO : Bambara, Dyula, Mano, Vai ta.
6. ‘house’
KUSUNDA : wohi ‘house’, INDO-PACIFIC [SNG] Hiwi aba, Sesa pei ‘village’, Jelmek ebi; NIGER-CONGO: Tschi O-fi; O-fi-e ‘home’, Nyangbo ke-pi ‘home, house’, Bamana pu-ye
7. ‘thunder, lightning’
KUSUNDA: khila; ANDAMAN: Bale kuru:dLke ‘thunder’ AUSTRIC: Indonesian *kilat ‘lightning’, kilap ‘glitter’
References
Bandhu, C.M. 1999: Keynote Address to the Fifth Himalayan Language Symposium Kathmandu Sept. 13-15 1999.
Fleming, Harold 1996: Looking to the West and North: Nihali and Kusunda Find Links Mother Tongue II, Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory, Issue II ( December 1996) Harvard University 2 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
Grierson, G. A. 1909: Linguistic Survey of India, New Delhi, India
Grime, Barbara ed. 2000: Ethnologue languages of the world, SIL
Gurung, Hark 1998: Nepal Social Demography and Expressions, New ERA Kathmandu, Nepal
Hodgson, Brian H. 1857: Journal of Asiatic Society – Bengal and Asian Educational Services C-2/15, SDA, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
Luitel, Guna Raj 2000: Sadhaika Lagi lope Huanai Lageka Chhan Kusunda Janajati (The Kusunda are on the brink of extinction) Kantipur, National Daily, May 19, 2000.
________ 2000: Kusunda Janajatiko Addhyanka Aadhar Biundu Rajamama (Rajamama: The person on whom Kusunda studies could be initiated) Kantipur, National Daily, May 23, 2000.
Pokharel, Madhav. P. 1993: Nepalale Angikar Garnuparne Bhashik Niti ra Bhashik Yojana: (Langauge Policy and Planning for Nepal) Pragyan 79, Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu.
Rana B. K. 2000: An Ethnographic Study on the Shaukas of Byas Valley, Janajati, Vol. 2 No. 1 Journal of Nationalities of Nepal Kathmandu.
__________ 2000: The Lone Kusunda: Struggles for survival. Report submitted to National Committee for Development of Nationalities, Kathmandu, Nepal.
__________ 2000: Writing on a Dead Language, The Kathmandu Post, April 16, 2000.
__________ 2001: Kusundaharuko Aanubanshik Parichhan Kina ? (Why are we required to have genetic tests of the Kusundas ?) Kantipur National Daily, May 31, 2001.
__________ 2001: A short note on Kusunda language, Janajati Vol.2 No. 4 Journal of Nationalities of Nepal, Kathmandu.
__________ 2001: Loponmukha Kusunda Jati, Ek Manab Bhasashastriya Adhyan (The Endangered Kusundas : A Linguistic Anthropological Study) Report submitted to His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, July 5, 2001
__________ 2001: Note on the Kusunda Language : OGMIOUS, Summer 31 August 2001, Foundation for Endangered Languages, 172 Bailbrook Lane, Bath 1 7AA, England.
__________ 2001 : Revitalizing Kusunda Language in the Himalayas. Paper presented to a symposium on Linguistic Perspectives on Endangered Languages, organized by the Linguistic Association of Finland, at Helsinki University, Finland, August 29 – September 1, 2001.
Reinhard, Johan 1968: The Kusunda: Ethnographic Notes on a Hunting tribe of Nepal. Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological Ethnological Research No 10.
__________ 1976: The Bana Rajas – A Vanishing Himalayan Tribe. Contribution to Nepalese Studies. Journal of the Institute of Nepal and Asian Studies-Tribhuvan University – Kathmandu.
Reinhard & Toba 1970 : A Preliminary Linguistic Analysis and Vocabulary of the Kusunda Language, University of Vienna and Summer Institute of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal..
Risely, H. H, George Grierson and William Crooke : 1931/1975. The Ethnology, Language. Literature and Religions of India. Delhi: The Academic Press.
Whitehouse, Paul 1997: The External Relationships of the Nihali and Kusunda Languages. Mother Tongue III : Journal of the Association for the Study of language in Prehistory Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
Witzel, Michael 1999: Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages. Mother Tongue (extra number October 1999) Journal of the Association for the Study of language in Prehistory Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138 USA.
[1] ‘Myahak‘ is tribal name for Kusundas. Note that the Gurungs have ‘Tamus’, Shaukas ‘Rongs’ and Limbus – ‘Yakthungs’ as their tribal names.
[2] The Raute are another ethnic group that live in the jungles of West Nepal even today; they speak Khamchi – a Tibeto-Burman language and they have clan names just as the Kusundas. Their females are not free and are treated differently than in the Kusunda community.
[3] Kusundas and Rautes have been found taking ‘Thakuri’ surnames such as Sen, Singh, Saha, Malla etc., mainly to uphold their social status. If only a few of them are ‘Upgraded Kusundas’ then the Kusunda population would increase reasonably; for, the Thakuri population in the last national population census (1991) was 1.62 % of the total 18,491,097. When addressed abusively Thakuris are also called ‘Kusundas’ by other peoples. The present Shah King dynasty belongs to the Thakuri community. In the coat of arms there is a picture of a hunter with a bow and arrow in his hands. The Kusundas have the word ‘tut’ and ‘mui’ for bow and arrow respectively.
[4] Chepangs are another ethnic group in the central hills of Nepal. Hodgson had found them ‘ few degrees above than the Kusundas’ . Nevertheless, few of them can still be found in caves they are doing better in recent years.
[5] Known as Kham Magar language
[6]. Some of the words in the list have been recorded quite recently. This language seems to have ‘eastern’ and ‘western’ dialects. For example: ‘blood’ in Kusunda is uyu, and‘monkey’ is guinyau.But, recent data differ asmy informants say lapa and haku respectively.
[7] These are few of the selected examples drawn from Paul Whitehouse’s work for showing the external relationships of Kusunda language and its importance for studying prehistory of the South Asian peoples. I have copied them from the writer’s article in Mother Tongue (1997).