Raigōs in Raigōs: A Close Analysis of Death Scenes in the Hōnen Shōnin Eden

Peiyuan Chen, Barnard College, Columbia University

Raigōzu, or scenes of the Buddha Amida (Sanskrit Amitabha) welcoming devotees at the moment of death to his Paradise of Ultimate Bliss (J. Gokuraku; Skt. Sukhavati), is a genre of imagery central to the Japanese Buddhist Pure Land tradition. Celebrated in Indian and Central Asian sutra literature and in Chinese commentarial literature and painting, the narrative descriptions and iconographic representation of such scenes were known in Japan since at least the eighth century.¹ In such representations, Amida descends from his Shichihō Palace, flanked by Kannon (Skt. Avalokiteśvara) and Dai-seishi (Skt. Mahāsthāmaprāpta), along with numerous transformed buddhas, monks, and heavenly beings. As they approach the dying individual, Kannon, carrying a diamond litter, leads the procession. While enveloped in Amida’s haloes, the dying person is welcomed by Amida’s outstretched hand, boards the diamond litter amidst praise from the accompanying bodhisattvas, and is escorted to the Pure Land.²

The earliest representation of such scenes in Japan is detailed in the lower register of the Taima Mandala, an eighth-century image woven from colored silk, illustrating Shandao’s Commentary on the Visualization Sutra on the Buddha of Ultimate Life (Ch. Fo shuo guan wu liang shou fo jing; J. Bussetsu kanmuryōjukyō).³ In the eleventh century, the Tendai monk Genshin (942-1017) popularized the iconography of raigōzu in texts, images, and ritual practice. Genshin and his community of fellow practitioners were responsible for the earliest paintings of raigōzu, the incorporation of its associated practices of visualization into systematic deathbed rituals, and the dissemination of the iconography in architecture, art, literature, and ceremonial performances.⁴ 

Raigōzu were also central to the life and legacy of Hōnen (1133-1212), revered as the founder of the Pure Land School in Japan. Art historian Fusae Kanda has demonstrated the influence of Hōnen’s doctrinal innovations on the iconography of painted raigōzu in the hanging scroll format.⁵ This article extends Kanda’s analysis to examine the larger role and historical context of the iconography of the raigōzu in the fourteenth-century Hōnen Shōnin Eden (Illustrated Life and Acts of Hōnen), a set of forty-eight illustrated handscrolls that depict the lives and deaths of Hōnen and his followers. Closely examining these handscrolls reveals fourteenth-century understandings of the raigōzu genre and related deathbed rituals. This essay will focus on selected death scenes in the Hōnen Shōnin Eden, arguing that the depiction of Hōnen Shōnin’s death not only underscores his central role in the Pure Land School but also challenges the iconographic conventions of raigōzu. The nested raigō imagery within the Eden demonstrate raigō paintings’ traditional mode of reception in the vertical hanging scroll format. It highlights the use of these hanging scrolls in visualization practices, setting stages for the viewers to experience a more expansive vision of Amida’s welcoming descent. The chronological narrative of the Eden presents a strategy of visualization that transforms the audience’s perception of the Raigō during the viewing process. The horizontal format of the handscroll both incorporates and transcends the limits of artistic and ritual objects, facilitating the viewing and understanding of raigōs while presenting a miraculous experience for viewers. In this narrative context, the vertical hanging scroll format of raigō serves as both a medium of transmission and a conduit for a more comprehensive understanding of faith, reception, and visualization.

Though the Eden cannot be dated with certainty, the handscrolls of the Hōnen Shōnin Eden were produced between 1295 and 1375, nearly a century after Hōnen’s death in 1212. The earliest extant eighteenth-century records from Zōjōji, one of the major training centers for Pure Land monks under the patronage of Tokugawa, identify the work as an imperial commission with imperial family members involved.⁶ The idealized depictions in this elite production were thus likely designed to be viewed by devout audiences of high-ranking monks, aristocrats, and dedicated followers of the Pure Land School. These depictions reinforced doctrinal beliefs and inspired faith in Amida’s vow. They elevated Hōnen as a central figure in Pure Land Buddhism, fostering devotion and guiding viewers toward practices for rebirth in the Western Pure Land.⁷

Symbolism and Commonalities in Raigō Ritual Scenes

While death scenes are not the predominant subject of the Eden, they offer enough examples to effectively compare a variety of deathbed scenes involving individuals of different social classes and religious statuses. These death scenes may be categorized into three groups: scenes including a painted hanging scroll of Amida’s welcome descendent, scenes in which Amida and his attendant bodhisattvas themselves appear along with a hanging scroll raigōzu in the same spaces, and the scene of Hōnen’s death.This last group features not only the Amida’s appearance and his attendant bodhisattvas but also their direct interaction with the deceased. These categories show apparent similarities, linked to each other through standardized death rituals. They all include the Amida triad form descending in hanging scroll formats and chart a narrative sequence through a progression of death scenes.

In the death scenes without the physical presence of Amida, the details of the rituals are not entirely uniform, yet there are a few basic items that are regularly included: a hanging scroll depicting Amida’s welcoming descent, metal chimes hanging on wooden stands as percussion instruments to accompany the chanting of Amida’s name, and a table set up in front of the hanging scroll supporting a vase and an incense burner. These meet the basic requirements for the “proper way to die” as outlined in Ōjōyōshū (Essentials for salvation), in which Genshin details “ten matters” (十事 Ch. shishi; J. jūji) that devotees should perform at the time of death to invoke Amida’s decision to come and welcome them to rebirth in the Western Pure Land.⁸ 

In these scenes, deceased figures, either reclining or seated, face the hanging scroll of Amida with folded hands. Yet, the actual descent of Amida to welcome the dying at the moment of death is not depicted. Only two golden beams of salvific light extend from the clouds outside the building to the forehead of the deceased, illuminating the journey of the deceased to the Western Pure Land.⁹ According to the Ōjōyōshū, this light originated from the Amida’s urna (J. byakugō). The appearance of Amida’s light is unseen by the dying, his attendants, and onlookers in the scene itself, but appears to be visible only to the viewer of the scrolls. Those surrounding the deceased, including monks with rosary beads and a female figure crying by the deathbed in Tokikuni’s death scene (Scroll 1, Section 5) (fig. 1), do not appear to notice the two golden light beams. The deathbed attendants do not witness Amida Buddha fulfilling his promise to come to greet and escort them to his western paradise. 

The protagonists in these images have diverse backgrounds as disciples or followers of Hōnen. The images of Amida in the hanging scrolls are almost all standing figures, which Kanda argues was Hōnen’s preferred format of raigōzu for doctrinal reasons. Hōnen’s devotion to the standing Amida stems from Shandao’s Commentary, which inspired him to focus solely on the practice of invocational nenbutsu. In fascicle three of the Commentary, entitled Dingshan yi (J. Jōzengi), Shandao remarks that Amida’s standing posture symbolizes his readiness to rescue those who seek rebirth in the Pure Land, contrasting with the seated Amida who lacks this immediacy. For Hōnen, this image of the compassionate, standing Amida embodies the doctrine of saving devotees at their most critical moment.¹⁰ 

Discrepancies and Interpretations in the Depiction of the Amida Triad

Compared to more conventional death scenes that depict painted hanging scroll raigōs, there are two exceptional examples where the scene extends to the far left of the image—beyond the two beams of light that fall upon the deceased’s forehead. In these examples, a manifestation of Amida, accompanied by his attendants Kannon and Seishi, physically descends into the realm of the dying figures.

In the scenes depicting the deaths of Fujiwara no Takanobu (Scroll 2, Section 1) (fig. 2) and Musha Sada-akira Akashi no Gennai (Scroll 12, Section 3) (fig. 3), both figures are seated with their hands in prayer in front of a hanging scroll raigō while a crowd gathered outside the room brush their sleeves and wipe away their tears.

Fragrance, an important sensory element in raigō imagery, is represented in Fujiwara no Takanobu’s death scene by a large cherry tree blossoming with the arrival of the Amida triad, releasing a scent described as an ‘exquisitely unusual’ (J. ikiyona) aroma.¹¹ In the sky beyond the building, Amida and his two attendants, Kannon and Seishi, descend on clouds from the west to approach the dying figure. In the image of Sada-akira (fig. 3), the reddish maple leaves on the right side indicate that it is autumn, but cherry petals still appear, falling through the air with the release of an unseasonable aroma occasioned by the arrival of Amida. 

The Amida triad in both images is depicted in the upper left corner of the scene, forming a diagonal compositional with the deceased. The artist maintains consistency in the diagonal downward motion of the Amida Welcoming Descent commonly depicted in the vertical hanging scroll format within the format of the illustrated scroll.¹² When viewed in their entirety, the raigōs hanging in the room and the Amida triad outside the room form a serendipitous alignment, creating raigōs within raigōs. This spatial arrangement superimposes the Welcoming Descent imagery in both artistic media and the imaginative realm, bridging faith and the miraculous. 

The raigō structure enables an indirect dialogue between the deceased and the Amida triad in the painting. It is noteworthy that the deceased and the accompanying figures remain unaware of the Amida triad’s presence, perhaps due to the wall obstructing the view from Takanobu’s deathbed. Similarly, the two attendants who turned their backs to accompany Sada-akira in his final moments, miss the actual manifestation of Amida. This lack of awareness makes these two depictions resonate with other examples where the Amida triad is not depicted (figs. 2, 3). Viewing from beyond the limits of the handscroll, the audience enjoys a privileged omniscient point of view, making them the sole witnesses to this divine manifestation. Thus, the associations created by the raigōs in raigōs continue to unfold within the narratives, further affirmation of the miraculous. Even if the dying figures within the handscroll cannot see the arrival of the Amida triad, it is nonetheless present and visible to the viewer positioned outside the handscroll.

The wonder continues, however, by including the actual presence of the Amida triad in these two depictions, making them stand out from the others. The reason for this difference lies in the textual evidence of their spiritual transformations and the broader religious context of Hōnen’s time. Musha Sada-akira Akashi no Gennai assassinated Hōnen’s father, Tokikuni, when Hōnen was only nine.¹³ Tokikuni’s dying request—that Hōnen avoid harboring hatred or seeking revenge—may have influenced Hōnen’s early departure from his family to pursue the priesthood. According to the Life and Acts of Hōnen, Sada-akira grew ashamed of his killing and dedicated himself to constant prayer to the Buddha, fearing karmic retribution.¹⁴ The deliberate choice of Amida triad’s appearance at Sada-akira’s deathbed was not only a testament to Hōnen’s commitment to his father’s wish but also symbolized the central belief in the Pure Land school that even the most sinful person can attain rebirth in the Western Pure Land through faith in Amida’s vow. As Hōnen said, “Do not be troubled about whether your heart is good or bad, or your sin light or grievous. Only determine in your heart that you will be born into the Pure Land, and so repeat the ‘Namu Amida Butsu’ with your lips, and let the conviction accompany the sound of your voice, that you will of a certainty be born into the Pure Land.”¹⁵

For Fujiwara no Takanobu, the Provisional Master of the Capital, right division (J. Ukyō Gon no Daibu), his conversion to Hōnen’s teachings is confirmed through the Life and Acts of Hōnen. Takanobu’s miraculous vision occurs on his deathbed during his devoted nenbutsu, where he perceives purple clouds and notices a peculiarly fragrant odor.¹⁶ As an ardent believer in Hōnen and having become a monk himself, his close relationship with Hōnen can be seen in Hōnen’s decision to send two disciples, Jūren and Anraku, to be his spiritual advisors at the end of his life.¹⁷ Though this is not sufficient to explain the decisive reasons for the special depiction of his death scene, it is still undeniable that Hōnen’s advocacy for the practice of nenbutsu flourished under the auspices of the Fujiwara clan, who wielded significant power during that era. Therefore, the inclusion of the Amida triad in Takanobu’s death scene asserts the support of the genuine power brokers and the aristocracy of the time.

Hōnen and His Final Moments

In the depictions of Hōnen’s death, the Amida triad manifests at least twice. The first occurs fourteen days before his passing, while the second appears at his final moment. Fourteen days before Hōnen’s imminent death, Life and Acts of Hōnen recounts that he rose in the morning and began reciting the Buddha’s name aloud. He is depicted seated at the front of the room facing west, surrounded by his disciples. He then asked his disciples if they could see the arriving Amida triad, saying, “The Bodhisattvas Kannon and Seishi and many sainted beings have appeared to me. Don’t you see them?”¹⁸ In the corresponding scene, Hōnen extends his forefinger, pointing into the distance, prompting some disciples to gaze outward. Others appear anxious, following the direction of his finger, yet none perceive any sign of the Amida triad (Scroll 37, Section 3) (fig. 4).

Beside Hōnen, one disciple seems about to offer him a five-colored cord with an Amida statue attached at one end, a common deathbed practice in which the bond between the devotee and the Buddha was physically enacted.¹⁹ Hōnen, however, declines, remarking, “This is the ceremony for most men, but hardly necessary for me.”²⁰ Meanwhile, at the left edge of the image, separated by a fence-like wall, the Amida triad descends, prepared to welcome Hōnen to the Western Pure Land.

The vivid scene of Hōnen’s final moment illustrates the spiritual reception of Hōnen by Amida Buddha at his deathbed (Scroll 37, Sections 17–19) (figs. 4, 5). On the far right of the image, a building corner is visible, its top obscured by a mass of colorful clouds. Sliding doors are intentionally opened, revealing a large crowd gathered outside. Hōnen lies on his side in a nine-strip monastic robe, hands together in prayer. His surrounding disciples wear dark gray robes, while among the onlookers are officials in richly patterned traditional Japanese hunting robes (J. kariginu) and veiled female figures. Aside from the disciple nearest to him, even Hōnen’s gaze is drawn upward, towards two golden lines that appear mid-air, almost parallel and slightly tilted toward the upper left. The most intriguing feature of the scene, however, is that, if the crowd were to extend further, the focus would shift away from Hōnen himself in his final moments.

Unlike the earlier death scenes of Sada-akira and Takanobu, his miraculous phenomenon is visible to Hōnen and also acknowledged by the expressive crowd surrounding the building. The golden beams converge directly upon Hōnen, and the open sliding doors appear arranged to accommodate their extension. This intention is highlighted by an official in a green bamboo-leaf patterned kariginu, who gestures directly at the beams. Two of the three monks near Hōnen lean out of the room, one places a hand on the ground and the other clasps his hands in prayer. Across the corridor, one monk kneels in prayer while two others display expressions of surprise, momentarily diverted from their sorrow. This arrangement of the crowd around these beams of light preserves the parallel alignment of the scene and centers the composition on the golden beams and Hōnen.

As the two golden beams extend to the left side of the scene, the lower right corner comes alive with people rushing toward Hōnen to witness the miraculous event, imbuing the image with a dynamic energy. The upper portion of the composition is enveloped in dense five-colored “purple” clouds, obscuring visibility beyond them. The central area remains largely unoccupied, displaying only subtle background hues, while the golden lines ascend toward the top, where the clouds gradually shift in form. Slightly to the left, the initial outline of a mountainous form appears, along with figures of Amida Buddha, Kannon, and Dai-Seishi Bodhisattva. These figures are depicted with bodies aglow in golden light, set against blue lunar disks of their halos, and stand on lotus pedestals, symbolizing their transcendence from the earthly realm. Their monastic robes are adorned with intricate cutting-gold (J. kirikane) embellishments, not seen elsewhere in the Eden. Golden rays radiate around Amida’s head and two golden beams extend from the urna on his forehead to the dying Hōnen.

The extensive use of gofun (胡粉) produces broad areas of bright white, depicting dense auspicious clouds (瑞雲 J. zuiun).²¹ These clouds extend from the upper left to the lower right corner of the image, shifting in form as they rise, with undissipated cloud patterns behind them that enhance the dynamic portrayal of the three figures arriving on colorful clouds. As they descend from the mountain, large patches of green and cloud motifs further emphasize the supernatural powers of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, able to cross mountains and ridges from the Western Pure Land.

A horizontal raigō scene is depicted within the limitations of the scale and format of the handscroll. The scroll’s dimensions and format prevent Amida, Kannon, and Seishi from being emphasized through enlarged figures, yet the artists skillfully expand the width and intensify color contrasts to create an aura of sacred radiance. Warm hues in the Eden are strategically concentrated around the vibrant clouds and the figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, enhancing their sacred presence within the composition. Meanwhile, the large crowd of onlookers is rendered in somber and understated tones, suitable for the solemnity of a vigil or funeral setting. Their attire is subdued, reflecting the gravity of the occasion.

The format of an illustrated handscroll plays a crucial role in the experience of the artwork. The viewer handling the scroll encounters a partial view at a time. This segmented viewing dramatically influences the perception of the narrative and the depicted scenes by “revealing successive sections of painted scenes while the prior section of the scroll disappears as it is rolled up and no longer visible.”²² In sections where the Amida triad is depicted, large spaces are intentionally preserved at the center of the image, creating a visual distance between the dying figures and the deities by introducing a blind spot where only the two beams of light may be visible. As the scroll is gradually unrolled to the left, the sudden emergence of the golden Amida triad produces a striking visual impact, and also guides the viewer to fully project the Amida’s welcoming descent into the real space. This dramatic revelation makes the viewing experience more dynamic and emotionally resonant, while purposeful artistic choices also heighten the sacredness of the deities.

The gathering of the crowd witnessing the miraculous phenomena at Hōnen’s death was not an isolated event. A similar assembly occurred during the death of his disciple Rensei when onlookers gathered after he announced that he would be taken by Amida to the Pure Land. However, the configuration of the crowd at Hōnen’s death is distinctly notable. Rather than encircling the building as depicted in Rensei’s scene, they are arranged in a line parallel to the two beams of light at the center of the image. This parallel arrangement of the disciples also resonates with a prevalent motif in Buddhist art, the Death of the Buddha, or Nehanzu in Japanese. An image from the Muromachi period depicting Hōnen’s Parinirvana (J. Hōnen shōnin rinjūzu) has placed Hōnen as the Buddha in the center.²³ In the lower half of the depiction, Hōnen is shown lying on his right side, encircled by grieving disciples. An Amida statue is specifically placed in the west, yet Hōnen did not position himself to face the direction of the Western Pure Land. The text of the Life and Acts of Hōnen emphasizes this association, noting that Hōnen passed away in his eightieth year, the same calendar year traditionally associated with the death of Shakyamuni Buddha.²⁴ The artists of the Eden emphasize this by portraying Hōnen’s death in a manner akin to the Buddha’s Parinirvana. This artistic choice affirms the significance of Hōnen as the founder of the Japanese Pure Land School, aligning his passing with the transformative moment of the Buddha’s departure.

In conclusion, the depiction of Hōnen Shōnin’s death scene in the Eden underscores the essential role of raigōzu and pushes at the spatial boundaries of the handscroll format to emphasize Hōnen’s direct, sacred interaction with the Amida triad. This horizontal raigō builds upon yet ultimately departs from the traditional vertical composition of the genre by guidingthe viewer’s perspective horizontally along the scene as it unfolds. This approach greatly enhances interactivity and immerses the viewer in a gradual revelation through anticipation and reverence. Through a deliberately crafted spatial arrangement, the scroll pays homage to Hōnen Shōnin’s central figure, elevating his revered position within Pure Land Buddhism. By honoring Hōnen’s spiritual legacy, the scroll not only celebrates his contributions but also illustrates his visionary approach to religious devotion, leaving an enduring impact on the period’s visual culture.

Endnotes

1. Elizabeth Ten Grotenhuis, “Rebirth of an Icon: The Taima Mandala in Medieval Japan.” Archives of Asian Art 36 (1983): 59–61. ↩︎
2. Hiroshi Mizuo, “Representations of Raigō in Buddhist Art,” Japan Quarterly 17, no. 1,1970. 51, 53-54. ↩︎
3. Ten Grotenhuis, “Rebirth of an Icon.” ↩︎
4. Jacqueline I. Stone, “Right Thoughts at the Last Moment: Buddhism and Deathbed Practices in Early Medieval Japan.” University of Hawaii Press, 2016, 54, 72-74. ↩︎
5. Fusae C. Kanda, “Hōnen’s Senchaku Doctrine and His Artistic Agenda.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 2004, 6-7. ↩︎
6. Sinead Rebecca Clare Kehoe, “Pictures of Patriarchs: The Illustrated Life and Acts of Honen,” 2012, 3-4. ↩︎
7. Kehoe, “Pictures of Patriarchs,” 4. See also Stone, Stone, Right Thoughts at the Last Moment, 129. ↩︎
8. Mimi Hall Yiengpruksawan, “The Eyes of Michinaga in the Light of Pure Land Buddhism.” In The Presence of Light: Divine Radiance and Religious Experience, edited by Matthew T. Kapstein, 225–61. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004, 240; Written in Chinese: 願佛放大光明/決定來迎/往生極樂. See Genshin. Ōjōyōshū. Kyoto: Daimonjirya Yosobō, [Kaei nenkan i.e. 1848 and 1853]. 3 vols, 366. ↩︎
9. Fusae C. Kanda, The Development of Amida Raigo Painting: Style, Concept, and Landscape. Yale University, 2002, 70; Genshin. Ōjōyōshū. Kyoto: Daimonjirya Yosobō, [Kaei nenkan i.e. 1848 and 1853]. 3 vols, 351-372; See also for the translation, Frederic J. Kotas, “Ōjōden: Accounts of Rebirth in the Pure Land,” 242. ↩︎
10. Kanda, “Hōnen’s Senchaku Doctrine,” 8–10. ↩︎
11. Kanda, “Hōnen’s Senchaku Doctrine,” 178. See also Shinkō Nakai, Hōnen Shōnin Eden. Kyōto-shi : Shibunkaku Shuppan, 2012, 76. ↩︎
12. Miriam Chusid, “The Miraculous Descent of Amida Buddha.” Impressions 45, 2024, 78. ↩︎
13. Harper Havelock Coates, Honen, the Buddhist Saint: His Life and Teaching. Vol. 1. Chionin, 1925, 103-104.Another account suggests Tokikuni was assassinated when Hōnen was 15, just before he set out for Mt. Hiei to pursue a life in the priesthood. See Ibid., 121. See also Kleine, Christoph. “The Separate Biography of Hōnen: A Translation and Critical Analysis of the Betsu-Denki.” Japanese Religions 21, no. 1 (1996): 77. ↩︎
14. Coates, Honen, 122. ↩︎
15. Coates, Honen, Vol. 2., 256. ↩︎
16. Coates, Honen, Vol. 2., 255-56. ↩︎
17. Coates, Honen, Vol. 2., 349. ↩︎
18. Coates, Honen, Vol. 2., 636. ↩︎
19. Stone, “Right Thoughts,” 148. ↩︎
20. Stone, “Right Thoughts,” 636. ↩︎
21. Chion’in collection’s 48 scrolls compiled by Shunshō reproduced in Shigemi Komatsu, ed., Hōnen Shōnin Eden (Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 1990), 3 vols., 37:19, with printed transcript and explanatory text. ↩︎
22. D. Max Moerman, The Japanese Buddhist World Map: Religious Vision and the Cartographic Imagination. University of Hawaii Press, 2021, 22. Moerman discusses the distinct viewing experience of handscrolls compared to maps. Like the Eden, the handscroll format unfolds gradually, inviting an immersive, narrative engagement. ↩︎
23. D. Max Moerman, “Dying Like the Buddha: Intervisuality and the Cultic Image.” Impressions, no. 29 (2007): 33. ↩︎
24. Coates, Honen, Vol. 2., 638. ↩︎

About the Author

Peiyuan Chen is a junior at Barnard College, Columbia University, majoring in Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures. She is interested in Buddhist art and its interplay with visual culture and religious practice. Outside of the classroom, she loves playing table tennis, watching Kabuki, and visiting art museums.