Ophelia He, Yale University
Emerging in the seventeenth century, Ukiyo-e—literally “pictures of the floating world”—refers to the vibrant tradition of Japanese woodblock prints that depicted the pleasures, fashions, and everyday scenes of Edo-period urban life. As the quintessential Japanese art form that flourished during this era, Ukiyo-e transcends mere artistic expression to become a narrative medium reflecting the nuanced tapestry of life. Within its vibrant spectrum, the genre of “Bijin-ga,” or pictures of beautiful women, stands as a testament not only to aesthetic finesse but also to a rich dialogue with cultural norms, societal values, and introspective portrayals of femininity. This paper seeks to dissect and juxtapose the stylistic nuances and thematic progressions within Ukiyo-e, particularly through a meticulous examination of the woodblock prints of notable artists Suzuki Harunobu, Kitagawa Utamaro, and Utagawa Kuniyoshi. An examination of the nocturnal scenes of three prints—Visiting a Shrine in Night Rain by Suzuki Harunobu (Figure 1), Kawabiraki Night Festival: View of Sumida River by Kitagawa Utamaro (Figure 2), and Seventh Month by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (Figure 3), unveils a captivating chronology of Edo’s evolving nightscape, revealing a dynamic interplay between the traditional Japanese aesthetic, the cultural ethos, and the evolving representation of women. Harunobu’s delicate and idealized vignettes of femininity give way to Utamaro’s more expressive and realistic depictions, culminating in Kuniyoshi’s bold and animated interpretations. This evolution in night portraiture reflects a microcosm of Edo society’s transition from the restraint and order prescribed by Confucianism to an era marked by an increasing openness to diversity and external influences, as evidenced by the shifting portrayal of nature and the emergence of mythological motifs. In this exploration, I will delve into the symbiotic relationship between the natural environment and human subjects within these artworks, scrutinizing how the artists used the depiction of settings—not merely as backdrops but as active participants in the narrative—to sculpt a multifaceted portrayal of women. The transformation of female imagery in Edo-period art is emblematic of broader societal transformations, with the night scenes serving as a visual metaphor for the changing tides of cultural identity, social norms, and the very concept of beauty itself. Ukiyo-e artists wove a complex narrative of femininity, one that mirrored the metamorphosis of their society and continues to resonate with contemporary interpretations of cultural and gender studies.
The Edo period, a time of unprecedented peace and stability under the Tokugawa shogunate’s rule, served as a crucible for social and artistic transformation in Japan from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The imposition of isolationist policies, known as sakoku, curtailed foreign influence and fostered a self-sufficient culture that channeled energies inward, leading to the flourishing of domestic arts and crafts. The urbanization of Edo (present-day Tokyo), Osaka, and Kyoto catalyzed the rise of a robust bourgeoisie class, whose newfound wealth and leisure created a market for the arts that celebrated the pleasures of the temporal world.1 The proliferation of Kabuki theater, the tea ceremony, and pleasure districts were a testament to the hedonistic undercurrents of the time. Ukiyo-e emerged as a medium that captured the ephemeral joys of urban life, with Bijin-ga, the depiction of female idealized beauty, becoming particularly popular. This art form was a reflection of a society in transition, one that embraced the pursuit of joy, beauty, and entertainment, a marked shift from the austere military and aristocratic dominance of the past. The Edo period thus created a unique socio-political environment that shaped artistic expression, allowing it to diverge from traditional themes of nature and the divine, towards more worldly and contemporary subjects, laying the groundwork for a distinct period in the history of Japanese art.
The significance of night in Japanese culture, particularly during the Edo period, can be attributed to various socio-cultural and environmental factors that distinguished the nocturnal rhythms in East Asia from those of Europe. In Japan, the practice of taking naps during the day, a habit somewhat distinct from European norms, played a crucial role in facilitating a vibrant nightlife. This daily rest pattern allowed individuals to rejuvenate, thereby extending their active hours into the night. Especially during the sweltering summer months, the cool of the evening provided a much-needed respite from the heat, making it an ideal time for leisure activities. Nighttime in Edo Japan was not just a period of rest but a time for pleasure and socialization. People frequently visited theaters and restaurants, engaging in games and entertainment that were unique to the night. Storytelling, an integral part of Japanese culture, often found its perfect setting in the serene and intimate atmosphere of the night. These nocturnal activities were not merely pastimes; they were woven into the fabric of Edo society, reflecting a deep appreciation for the night as a time of community, leisure, and cultural expression.2 This unique nocturnal culture significantly influenced various art forms like Ukiyo-e, where night scenes captured the essence of Edo’s vibrant nightlife, its societal dynamics, and the collective ethos of enjoying life’s fleeting pleasures under the moonlit sky.
Suzuki Harunobu’s Visiting a Shrine in Night Rain exemplifies the traditional and idealized portrayal of femininity characteristic of the early Edo period. The depiction of femininity is both traditional and idealized, woven seamlessly with the aesthetic principles of kanso and miyabi. Rooted in classical Japanese aesthetics, kanso refers to an ideal of simplicity and restraint, while miyabi denotes an elegance marked by refinement and graceful subtlety. The artwork exudes kanso through the use of plain, muted colors on the kimono, which is traditional yet striking in its simplicity. The simplicity of color choice is deliberate, eschewing clutter for a clear and fresh visual narrative that allows the subject to stand serene against the night’s drizzle. This approach to color reflects a restrained elegance, a hallmark of kanso, where the focus is directed to the essence of the subject without superfluous detail.3 Simultaneously, the essence of miyabi is captured in the graceful contours of the woman’s body, which are reminiscent of a dancer’s poise. Her movements, dictated by the wind, flow like gentle waves, not with extreme curves but with a refined undulation that suggests both the natural world’s influence and the contained grace of the subject. The roundness of her face, along with the soft curves of her nose and mouth, epitomize the traditional beauty standards of the time, aligning with the miyabi aesthetic that seeks out elegance and refinement.4 The facial features, including the eyebrows, seem to echo the style seen in classical Chinese painting, further enhancing the refined cultural exchange inherent in the artwork. The setting of the painting reinforces this classical beauty, with the shrine’s shine hinting at a timeless tranquility that underpins the scene. This traditional environment, untouched by the unique signatures of modernity, acts as a stage where the principles of miyabi and kanso play out in harmony.
Furthermore, Harunobu’s inspiration drawn from Noh theater, which is imbued with the weight of tradition and seen as ancient in comparison to the then-popular Kabuki, is a deliberate choice that underscores his commitment to a more classical depiction of Japanese culture. In an era where Kabuki’s dynamism was the trend, Harunobu’s insistence on integrating elements of Noh theater into his work reflects a steadfast adherence to traditional aesthetics, casting femininity in a light that is as timeless as it is idealized.
These traditional and elegant characteristics in Harunobu’s prints come as a result of the socio-political environment in the early Edo period. Marked by the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, this time heralded a significant transformation in Japanese society and culture. Following a tumultuous era of civil war, the shogunate’s consolidation of power brought about a long-awaited period of peace and stability. This newfound tranquility allowed for a cultural renaissance, characterized by a deepened appreciation for traditional Japanese aesthetics. The societal shift from conflict to peace facilitated a reconnection with nature, which became a central theme in both art and literature.5 Artists and writers of this period often idealized nature, portraying it as a harmonious and serene refuge, a stark contrast to the turmoil of the preceding warring states period. This idealization was reflected in the elegant and traditional styles of Ukiyo-e prints, where the beauty and tranquility of nature were often emphasized. These prints became a medium through which the values of simplicity, elegance, and a deep reverence for the natural world were communicated. The emphasis on traditional aesthetics was not just an artistic choice but a reflection of the society’s desire to return to and preserve its cultural roots, celebrating the beauty of a peaceful and ordered world. The return to tradition and the idealized portrayal of nature in art was a testament to the societal longing for harmony and stability, values that were deeply ingrained in the fabric of early Edo society.
In the early Edo period, night scenes in art often depicted an idealized harmony between humans and nature, even amid natural elements such as wind or rain. In Visiting a Shrine in Night Rain, the girl’s serene expression—calm eyes directed toward the lantern and a mouth that reveals no emotion—creates a striking contrast with the animated natural setting around her. Her poised stance and gently curved body evoke the elegance of a dancer, yet the movement of her garments, the sweeping arc of the umbrella, and the violently rustling leaves behind her all reveal the force of the wind. The visible inner layers of her clothing and the disarray of her sleeves further underscore the intensity of the storm. This juxtaposition of calmness and turbulence conveys a sense of emotional detachment: the girl appears unbothered, even contemplative, despite the surrounding chaos.6 Such idealization—seen most clearly in the stillness of her hair against the wind—elevates the scene beyond literal truth and into the realm of aspiration. Her composure reflects Confucian ideals of self-restraint and harmony with nature, suggesting that she has internalized these values to the point where external disturbance does not disrupt her inner equilibrium. The night is thus transformed from a moment of fear or instability into one of beauty and thoughtful contemplation, where even the wind’s potential disruption becomes part of a choreographed expression of human presence within the natural world.
Transitioning from the serene and idealized night scenes of early Edo period art, as epitomized by Suzuki Harunobu, the evolution of nocturnal imagery takes a dynamic turn in the works of Kitagawa Utamaro. In Kawabiraki Night Festival: View of Sumida River, Utamaro transcends traditional representations to portray the festive scene, infusing the night with vibrant energy and a celebratory spirit that effectively blurs the lines between night and day. This shift signifies a deeper transformation in the artistic and cultural landscape of the period, where night scenes become a canvas for expressing the lively and convivial aspects of Edo’s urban life. The artwork adeptly employs the contrast between the vibrant lanterns and the darkness of the boats to accentuate the celebratory mood. These pockets of light amidst the enveloping dusk serve to draw the viewer’s attention, creating focal points of warmth and activity. The darkness of the night renders the exact number of people in the background indiscernible, leaving only their silhouettes visible. This clever use of ambiguity allows the viewer’s imagination to engage, suggesting a bustling crowd without defining its limits, creating an impression of a teeming multitude enjoying the festivities. Furthermore, Utamaro’s use of a relatively light color for the sky, possibly illuminated by the bursts of fireworks above, imbues the scene with a luminous quality that challenges the typical darkness of night. This artistic choice suggests the energy of the festival is so vibrant that it transforms night into day for the revelers. The light and color scheme Utamaro employs convey that the festival’s liveliness endows the participants with an enduring vigor, blurring the lines between night and day and emphasizing that the festive spirit is not dimmed by the fall of night.
The transformation of night into a canvas for urban vibrancy and celebration during the Edo period can be attributed to the burgeoning growth of cities and the ascendancy of the merchant class. As economic prosperity brought a new demographic to the forefront of society, their desire for entertainment and social engagement extended the vibrancy of city life well into the evening hours. The night, traditionally a time of rest and quiet, began to pulsate with the energy of pleasure quarters, theaters, and festivals, each vying to outdo the other in splendor. The introduction of paper lanterns and other forms of artificial lighting revolutionized the nocturnal experience, transforming the dark hours into an extension of the day. These sources of light did more than illuminate; they became symbols of festivity themselves, casting a warm glow that invited socialization and celebration. Nature, while still a revered presence, served increasingly as a picturesque backdrop to the human-centric festivities, providing a contrast that further enhanced the allure and enchantment of the night. This new nocturnal culture not only reflected the changing rhythms of urban life but also reinforced the festive ambiance that became synonymous with the nights in Edo-period Japan.7
In Kitagawa Utamaro’s Kawabiraki Night Festival: View of Sumida River, there is a palpable sense of naturalism and a candid celebration of the fleeting moment, all heightened by the enigmatic ambiance of the night. The postures and actions of the individuals depicted convey an unrestrained naturalness that the cloak of night seems to encourage. For instance, the woman on the left, caught in the act of nonchalantly throwing something away, embodies a relaxed disposition that day’s scrutiny might not permit. Her motion is fluid and unencumbered, suggesting a release from the day’s decorum. This act, which might be seen as impolite by daylight standards, is rendered innocuous and natural under the cover of night, reflecting a social atmosphere less bound by traditional constraints than the Edo period’s outset. The central woman, engrossed in smoking and lost in thought, along with the woman on the right, whose loosened clothing and slightly disheveled hair might be frowned upon in daylight hours, are similarly depicted enjoying a moment of unguarded repose. Their relaxed demeanors suggest that nightfall provides a sanctuary where the strictures of elegance and propriety are relaxed, a reflection of the Edo period’s burgeoning entertainment culture. This cultural shift is set against the backdrop of expanding urban centers like Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto, where a growing middle class with disposable income was keen to indulge in entertainment and the arts. Popular culture of the time embraced the transient beauty of the seasons, as celebrated in haiku poetry, and the concept of mono no aware—the poignant awareness of life’s transience. Utamaro’s work captures this essence, portraying the night not merely as a time but as a cultural space where the ephemeral nature of life is both acknowledged and enjoyed, where people are momentarily freed from the day’s constraints to engage with the world and each other more authentically.
Transitioning from Utamaro’s depiction of realistic social scenes in Kawabiraki Night Festival, Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s Seventh Month (1847-1852) marks a significant shift, exploring a realm of myth and fantasy that vividly contrasts with the earlier naturalistic portrayal of Edo’s nightlife. In Seventh Month, a captivating mythological night scene unfolds, marked by surreal elements and an intimate human interaction with nature. This work represents a significant departure from traditional depictions, embracing a more fantastical and surreal approach. The river, portrayed with a glowing blue hue, stands in stark contrast to the more subdued representations of water in Utamaro’s works. Kuniyoshi’s river doesn’t just reflect the natural world; it enhances it, infusing the scene with a mystical quality. The curves of the river, flowing elegantly in the background, possess an almost dreamlike quality, further reinforcing the mythological atmosphere of the print. The glowworms are depicted with almost deity-like status, radiating extraordinary colors that add a magical dimension to the scene. This treatment of the glowworms as luminous, ethereal beings is a testament to Kuniyoshi’s imaginative prowess. Additionally, the surrealistic approach extends to the depiction of flowers, which are illuminated with white, giving them a star-like appearance against the night sky. This is a significant shift from the more traditional, darker, and ambiguous representations of flora in other works of the period. The interior scene in the artwork is equally remarkable, filled with light and luminous colors that suggest the vibrant, lively atmosphere of the pleasure quarter. This use of bright interior colors juxtaposes the mythological exterior, highlighting the dichotomy between the human-made world and the natural, mystical realm. Furthermore, the sky at the top of the painting is sprinkled with small shatters of blue and yellow, adding depth and complexity to the mythological theme. This element serves to heighten the sense of otherworldliness, drawing the viewer into a realm that transcends the ordinary and delves into the realm of fantasy and enchantment. Kuniyoshi’s Seventh Month is thus a vivid tapestry of surrealism, myth, and interaction with nature, showcasing a bold departure from traditional aesthetics and embracing a more imaginative and fantastical portrayal of the natural world.
In the later part of the Edo period, the portrayal of mythological nights in art can be understood against the backdrop of a rising nationalist sentiment and a reinvigorated focus on Shinto, the indigenous spiritual tradition of Japan that deeply venerates nature. This period saw natural features such as mountains, forests, and waterfalls being revered not just for their aesthetic value but as sacred entities, embodying the divine spirit (kami) inherent in nature. This reverence was a key aspect of the Shinto belief system, which became more prominent as Japan sought to define and assert its cultural identity. Concurrently, there was a surge in scholarly interest in the native flora and fauna, part of the broader “National Learning” or Kokugaku movement. This movement was dedicated to studying and promoting uniquely Japanese culture and thought, consciously distancing itself from earlier Chinese influences. These cultural shifts fostered a creative environment where mythological interpretations of night scenes flourished. Artists began to infuse their work with elements of folklore, spirituality, and a deepened appreciation for the natural world, depicting nights that were not just dark canvases but realms filled with mystical significance and otherworldly beauty. The blend of nationalistic pride, Shinto spirituality, and scholarly curiosity gave rise to artworks that celebrated Japan’s unique cultural and natural heritage through a lens that was both mystical and deeply rooted in the nation’s evolving identity.8
In Seventh Month, the night is transformed into a dramatic and theatrical curtain, setting the stage for a vividly depicted scene of courtesans in a pleasure quarter. The darkness of the night, depicted almost entirely in black, starkly contrasts with the brightly lit interior, enhancing the drama and drawing the viewer’s focus to the activity within. This representation of night diverges from the grey, subdued skies typically seen in earlier artworks, underscoring the shift towards a more dynamic and expressive approach to night scenes. Central to the composition is the depiction of a courtesan, clad in an extravagantly beautiful and highly decorative kimono. The untraditional use of patterns and contrasting colors—vibrant pinks, blues, and yellows—immediately captures the audience’s attention, signaling a departure from conventional aesthetics. The other girls in the scene are similarly adorned in highly decorative clothing, with elaborate gold hair decorations featuring multiple hair clasps, adding to the overall dramatic impact. The facial expressions of the characters are notably theatrical. The courtesan, with her mouth open and her gaze directed towards the two girls, conveys a sense of dynamic interaction, her hand gracefully moving with a fan. The girls in front of her display expressions of amazement, with fine details such as the blackened teeth (ohaguro), a traditional beauty practice, visible. The makeup on their faces marks them clearly as part of the entertainment industry, but their style and presentation indicate a departure from the more subdued representations of entertainers in earlier periods, reflecting changing beauty standards. The actions of the characters further amplify the drama: they are captured in mid-movement, as if about to rise, with their hands supporting their bodies in a manner that is both unusual and unnatural, suggesting intense curiosity or sudden engagement. The girl behind the courtesan, with a worried expression, seems poised to speak, adding to the narrative complexity. Each character is engrossed in their own activity, creating a sense of motion and purpose that imbues the scene with a cinematic quality. Therefore, in this artwork, the night does not merely serve as a backdrop but acts as a ‘curtain’ that unveils a dramatic and richly detailed world, where each element—from the courtesans’ lavish attire to their expressive poses—contributes to an overall effect that is intensely dramatic and vividly theatrical. Kuniyoshi’s portrayal is a masterful blend of traditional elements and innovative artistic expression, encapsulating the dynamic cultural shifts of the late Edo period.
The evolving portrayal of women in Ukiyo-e mirrors the broader socio-cultural transformations of the Edo period, revealing how shifts in aesthetic sensibilities reflected changing perceptions of femininity, identity, and societal values. From Suzuki Harunobu’s delicate, idealized forms to Kitagawa Utamaro’s expressive realism, and finally to Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s dramatic and vibrant scenes, we witness a remarkable shift in artistic sensibilities that mirrored societal changes. These artists not only captured the aesthetics of their time but also subtly commented on the evolving roles and perceptions of women in Japanese society. Harunobu’s tranquil and composed figures, rooted in the traditions of kanso and miyabi, gradually gave way to Utamaro’s more candid and diverse representations, reflecting a society increasingly at ease with complexity and naturalism. Kuniyoshi’s dynamic and almost theatrical depictions marked a further evolution, embodying the period’s growing fascination with the mythical and the fantastical. This journey through the nightscapes of Edo art reveals much more than artistic evolution; it unveils the shifting tides of cultural identity, societal norms, and the concept of beauty itself. The night, once a backdrop, becomes a narrative device that reflects the changing essence of femininity—from confined elegance to expressive individualism, and finally, to empowered dynamism. The transformation of female imagery in these artworks is emblematic of broader societal transformations, capturing the spirit of an era that saw the rise of urban culture, the flourishing of entertainment industries, and the gradual opening of Japan to external influences. Ukiyo-e artists intricately wove narratives of femininity, intertwining them with the cultural, social, and political threads of their time. Their legacy continues to resonate, offering profound insights into the historical context of premodern East Asia and contributing significantly to contemporary discussions in cultural and gender studies. The art of Ukiyo-e thus stands not just as a historical artifact but as a vibrant dialogue with the past, continuing to inform and inspire our understanding of the complex interplay between art, society, and gender.
About the Author
Ophelia He is a senior undergraduate at Yale University double-majoring in Computer Science and the History of Art. Her academic interests focus on modern art, nineteenth-century French art, and Pre-Raphaelite painting, with a particular attention to Victorian visual culture. Beyond her academic work, she is an actor engaged in theater and performance, with interests in film and fashion.
Notes
- Takumi Tsutaya et al., “Stable Isotopic Reconstructions of Adult Diets and Infant Feeding Practices during Urbanization of the City of Edo in 17th Century Japan,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153, no. 4 (2014): 559–69. ↩︎
- Kuniyoshi Utagawa et al., “Night,” essay, in Kuniyoshi+: Design Und Entertainment Im Japanischen Farbholzschnitt = Kuniyoshi+: Design and Entertainment in Japanese Woodblock Prints (Wien: Verlag für moderne Kunst, 2019), 98. ↩︎
- Donald Keene, “Japanese aesthetics,” Philosophy East and West 19, no. 3 (1969): 293-306. ↩︎
- Keene, “Japanese aesthetics,” 295. ↩︎
- Kazuo Nishiyama, Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban Japan, 1600–1868 (University of Hawaii Press, 1997), 92. ↩︎
- Adam L. Kern, “Designed for Pleasure: The World of Edo Japan in Prints and Paintings, 1680-1860,” The Journal of Japanese Studies 37, no. 1 (2011): 120-128. ↩︎
- Margarita Winkel, “Entertainment and education: An antiquarian society in Edo, 1824–25,” in Uncharted Waters: Intellectual Life in the Edo Period, (Brill, 2012), 11-34. ↩︎
- Toshio Kuroda, James C. Dobbins, and Suzanne Gay, “Shinto in the history of Japanese religion,” Journal of Japanese Studies 7, no. 1 (1981): 1-21. ↩︎
Bibliography
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